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To convert rotational speed (RPM) to horsepower, engine torque parameters must be incorporated, as horsepower is a power metric determined jointly by torque and rotational speed. There are two commonly used calculation methods: one is to directly apply the formula Horsepower = (Torque (Newton-meters, Nm) × Rotational Speed (RPM)) ÷ 5252, which yields British horsepower (HP); the other involves first calculating Power (kilowatts, kW) = Torque × Rotational Speed ÷ 9549, then multiplying the power by 1.36 to obtain metric horsepower (PS). For example, if an engine delivers 300 Nm of torque at 5000 RPM, the first method yields (300 × 5000) ÷ 5252 ≈ 285.6 HP, while the second method first calculates power ≈ 157 kW, then multiplies by 1.36 ≈ 213 PS. Horsepower is a critical metric for assessing engine performance. The interplay between rotational speed and torque determines an engine's actual output capability. Mastering this conversion method enables more accurate evaluation of a vehicle's power characteristics—for instance, when comparing performance parameters across different models, this formula allows quick conversion and straightforward comparison.

In the Malaysian market, the current model with the highest torque is the Tank 500. It is equipped with a Hybrid petrol-electric powertrain and a Miller-cycle 2.0T engine, delivering a combined torque of 750N•m, along with a combined power output of 300kW, a combined fuel consumption of 2.06L/100km, and a fuel consumption of only 8.80L/100km in charge-sustaining mode. It also features BorgWarner's new-generation EMOD intelligent four-wheel drive system, balancing robust power delivery with fuel efficiency. Additionally, other high-torque models in the market include the Toyota Hilux 2.8L turbocharged diesel variant (peak torque 500N•m) and the Mitsubishi Triton Athlete 2.4L twin-turbo diesel variant (peak torque 470N•m). These models, leveraging the inherent characteristics of diesel engines, deliver substantial low-end torque, making them ideal for heavy-duty or off-road applications. Through its hybrid system's synergistic operation, the Tank 500 further elevates its torque characteristics, offering consumers enhanced dynamic performance while demonstrating exceptional traction and off-road capability, particularly in challenging terrain conditions.

Torque is one of the key indicators affecting a car's acceleration performance, especially during starting and low-speed acceleration. Greater torque allows the vehicle to overcome inertia more quickly, enabling rapid starts and acceleration while reducing the 0-100km/h acceleration time. For example, high-torque models can reach 60km/h faster when starting at traffic lights and increase speed more rapidly when overtaking. Additionally, torque determines a vehicle's hill-climbing ability and load-carrying performance. High-torque models can provide more ample power when facing steep slopes or heavy loads, allowing smooth driving without frequent gear shifts. Torque is closely related to power; their product equals horsepower, and together they influence vehicle performance—starting and low-speed acceleration rely on torque, while power plays a more significant role during high-speed driving. Transmission matching optimizes torque output; for instance, turbocharged engines are designed to maintain peak torque output in the low-rev range, enhancing the smoothness and responsiveness of urban driving. However, a vehicle's top speed also depends on factors such as power and transmission efficiency. Torque is not the sole determining factor, but it is crucial for the acceleration experience and practical performance in daily driving.

There is no fixed torque value for regular cars; it needs to be determined based on the vehicle type, displacement, and usage scenarios. From the perspective of vehicle types, the torque of small cars is usually 100-150 N·m, compact cars 150-220 N·m, midsize cars 200-280 N·m, and high-end SUVs or performance cars can reach 250-400+ N·m. In terms of displacement, engines below 1.0L mostly have a torque of 100-150 N·m, 1.0L-1.5L engines 150-220 N·m, 1.6L-2.0L engines 200-280 N·m, and engines above 2.0L 250-400+ N·m. For most family users, a torque range of 200-300 N·m is more suitable, as it can not only meet the power needs for daily passenger and cargo carrying but also not lead to excessively high fuel consumption and maintenance costs. If one pursues driving pleasure or stronger acceleration performance, models with torque above 300 N·m can be chosen. If the car is mainly used for urban commuting, appropriately reducing the torque can improve fuel economy. The suitable torque range varies under different needs and scenarios, so one needs to choose based on their actual situation.

Torque is a key indicator for measuring the instantaneous explosive power of a car engine, and its reasonable value needs to be determined based on the vehicle model and usage scenario. For family cars, a torque range of 150-220N·m is sufficient to meet urban commuting needs. The Mazda Skyactiv-G1.5 engine, common in the local market, delivers a peak torque of 148N·m at 4000 rpm, which is close to this range and provides smooth daily acceleration. For SUV models, a torque of 250-350N·m is recommended to handle complex road conditions. Performance cars or hardcore off-road vehicles require torque above 400N·m to ensure robust power output. Additionally, torque characteristics vary among different engine types: turbocharged engines typically achieve peak torque at 1500-2000 rpm, offering more immediate power response, while naturally aspirated engines generally reach peak torque above 3000 rpm, with relatively delayed power delivery. When selecting, it's essential to match the torque range to your specific driving needs to achieve an optimal driving experience.

There are two main core methods for calculating torque. The first one is based on mechanical principles, i.e., torque equals the product of the force acting perpendicularly on the lever arm and the length of the lever arm, with the formula: Torque (Nm) = Force (N) × Lever Arm Length (m). It is applicable to scenarios such as bolt tightening and simple mechanical rotation. The second method is commonly used in power systems like automobile engines, which calculates torque through the relationship between power and rotational speed, with the formula: Torque (Nm) = Power (kW) × 9550 ÷ Rotational Speed (rpm). This formula helps engineers optimize the parameter matching of engines, transmissions, and drive systems during the design phase, and select appropriate gear ratios to balance power performance and fuel economy. In performance testing, the torque curve obtained using this formula can intuitively reflect the power output characteristics of the engine at different rotational speeds. In the manufacturing process, controlling the assembly torque of components according to the force and lever arm formula can ensure the reliability of connections and avoid problems such as component loosening due to insufficient torque or bolt fracture caused by excessive torque.

Neither torque nor horsepower is strictly better—their importance depends on your driving needs. Torque refers to the twisting force that gets a car moving from a stop, climbs hills, or accelerates at low speeds, which is ideal for stop-and-go city traffic (common in Malaysian urban areas like Kuala Lumpur) and navigating hilly regions such as Cameron Highlands or Genting Highlands. Horsepower, on the other hand, measures how quickly that force can be sustained over time, crucial for maintaining high speeds on highways like the North-South Expressway or overtaking other vehicles safely at higher RPMs. In Malaysia, most popular local models (like Perodua Myvi or Proton Saga) are tuned for strong low-end torque to suit daily urban commutes, while turbocharged variants (such as Proton X50 or X70) balance early torque delivery with sufficient horsepower for highway use. For instance, a car with high torque at 1,500-2,500 RPM will feel responsive when pulling away from traffic lights or climbing small slopes, whereas higher horsepower helps in faster overtakes on busy expressways. Modern engines often combine both traits—turbochargers boost torque at low RPMs and maintain horsepower at higher ranges, making them versatile for mixed driving conditions in Malaysia. So the "better" option depends on your routine: prioritize torque for city-focused drives, or a balanced torque-horsepower ratio for frequent highway and hill trips.

There are mainly two methods for calculating engine torque. At the basic physics level, it can be calculated by the product of force and moment arm, with the formula: Torque M = Force F × Moment Arm r (where F is the force acting perpendicularly on the moment arm, in Newtons; r is the length of the moment arm, in meters; the resulting unit is Newton-meters, Nm). In automotive engineering, the commonly used calculation method is based on the engine's output power and rotational speed, with the formula: Torque T = 9550 × Power P ÷ Rotational Speed n (where P is the output power, in kilowatts, kW; n is the rotational speed, in revolutions per minute, rpm). For example, an engine with a power of 100 kW and a rotational speed of 5000 rpm has a torque of 9550 × 100 ÷ 5000 = 191 Nm. Torque is widely used in the automotive field. During the design phase, it can be used to optimize the parameter matching of the engine, transmission, and drive system by calculation, and select an appropriate gear ratio to balance power and fuel economy. In performance testing, the torque curve can reflect the dynamic characteristics of the engine and help evaluate the power transmission efficiency. In the manufacturing process, parts assembly must strictly follow torque requirements. For instance, the bolt tightening torque should be moderate to avoid loosening or damage, ensuring the reliability and stability of the vehicle.

The types of fuels used in ships are diverse, and their selection needs to be comprehensively determined based on the ship type, navigation area, and environmental protection regulations. Among traditional fuels, heavy fuel oil (such as RMG380) is the main fuel for large ocean-going vessels due to its low cost and high energy density. However, its high viscosity requires preheating, and the high sulfur content necessitates desulfurization equipment to comply with the IMO 2020 global sulfur cap of 0.5%. Marine diesel fuels include marine gas oil (MGO) and marine diesel oil (MDO). MGO is clean and low-sulfur (with sulfur content ≤0.1% for low-sulfur variants), making it suitable for ports, emission control areas, or small vessels. MDO, with performance intermediate between heavy fuel oil and light diesel, is commonly used in auxiliary engines. As for clean transition fuels, liquefied natural gas (LNG) produces virtually no sulfur oxide emissions and reduces nitrogen oxides by up to 90%, leading to its widespread adoption in regions with stringent environmental regulations. Biofuels like hydrogenated vegetable oil can be blended directly with conventional fuels without system modifications, serving as a practical short-term emission reduction solution. Among emerging green fuels, green methanol remains liquid at ambient temperature for easy storage and offers significant carbon reduction benefits; ammonia combustion emits no CO2, positioning green ammonia as a potential future fuel for deep-sea shipping; while hydrogen provides zero emissions, its storage demands cryogenic or high-pressure conditions, making it more viable for short-haul routes. With the International Maritime Organization's 2050 target of reducing shipping greenhouse gas emissions by 50%, marine fuels are undergoing a progressive shift toward diversification and cleaner alternatives. Shipowners must evaluate fuel options by holistically assessing cost, environmental performance, and technological readiness.

Diesel #2 is a specific type of diesel fuel; not all diesel fuels are equivalent to Diesel #2. Diesel #2 typically refers to ultra-low sulfur diesel without additives, whose hydrocarbon properties meet the requirements of relevant standard tests. It has good combustibility, high energy density, and good fluidity at room temperature, making it suitable for diesel engines in heavy-duty vehicles, industrial equipment, and generator sets. Due to its low sulfur content, this type of diesel helps reduce engine wear and exhaust emissions. It is one of the common types of diesel fuel locally and is widely used in diesel-powered equipment in road transportation, agriculture, construction, and other fields.