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There are mainly two methods for calculating engine torque. At the basic physics level, it can be calculated by the product of force and moment arm, with the formula: Torque M = Force F × Moment Arm r (where F is the force acting perpendicularly on the moment arm, in Newtons; r is the length of the moment arm, in meters; the resulting unit is Newton-meters, Nm). In automotive engineering, the commonly used calculation method is based on the engine's output power and rotational speed, with the formula: Torque T = 9550 × Power P ÷ Rotational Speed n (where P is the output power, in kilowatts, kW; n is the rotational speed, in revolutions per minute, rpm). For example, an engine with a power of 100 kW and a rotational speed of 5000 rpm has a torque of 9550 × 100 ÷ 5000 = 191 Nm. Torque is widely used in the automotive field. During the design phase, it can be used to optimize the parameter matching of the engine, transmission, and drive system by calculation, and select an appropriate gear ratio to balance power and fuel economy. In performance testing, the torque curve can reflect the dynamic characteristics of the engine and help evaluate the power transmission efficiency. In the manufacturing process, parts assembly must strictly follow torque requirements. For instance, the bolt tightening torque should be moderate to avoid loosening or damage, ensuring the reliability and stability of the vehicle.

The types of fuels used in ships are diverse, and their selection needs to be comprehensively determined based on the ship type, navigation area, and environmental protection regulations. Among traditional fuels, heavy fuel oil (such as RMG380) is the main fuel for large ocean-going vessels due to its low cost and high energy density. However, its high viscosity requires preheating, and the high sulfur content necessitates desulfurization equipment to comply with the IMO 2020 global sulfur cap of 0.5%. Marine diesel fuels include marine gas oil (MGO) and marine diesel oil (MDO). MGO is clean and low-sulfur (with sulfur content ≤0.1% for low-sulfur variants), making it suitable for ports, emission control areas, or small vessels. MDO, with performance intermediate between heavy fuel oil and light diesel, is commonly used in auxiliary engines. As for clean transition fuels, liquefied natural gas (LNG) produces virtually no sulfur oxide emissions and reduces nitrogen oxides by up to 90%, leading to its widespread adoption in regions with stringent environmental regulations. Biofuels like hydrogenated vegetable oil can be blended directly with conventional fuels without system modifications, serving as a practical short-term emission reduction solution. Among emerging green fuels, green methanol remains liquid at ambient temperature for easy storage and offers significant carbon reduction benefits; ammonia combustion emits no CO2, positioning green ammonia as a potential future fuel for deep-sea shipping; while hydrogen provides zero emissions, its storage demands cryogenic or high-pressure conditions, making it more viable for short-haul routes. With the International Maritime Organization's 2050 target of reducing shipping greenhouse gas emissions by 50%, marine fuels are undergoing a progressive shift toward diversification and cleaner alternatives. Shipowners must evaluate fuel options by holistically assessing cost, environmental performance, and technological readiness.

Diesel #2 is a specific type of diesel fuel; not all diesel fuels are equivalent to Diesel #2. Diesel #2 typically refers to ultra-low sulfur diesel without additives, whose hydrocarbon properties meet the requirements of relevant standard tests. It has good combustibility, high energy density, and good fluidity at room temperature, making it suitable for diesel engines in heavy-duty vehicles, industrial equipment, and generator sets. Due to its low sulfur content, this type of diesel helps reduce engine wear and exhaust emissions. It is one of the common types of diesel fuel locally and is widely used in diesel-powered equipment in road transportation, agriculture, construction, and other fields.

The practice of adding two-stroke engine oil to diesel fuel is mainly applicable to two-stroke diesel engines. Due to their compact structure and lack of an independent lubrication system, these engines require two-stroke engine oil to be mixed with diesel fuel in a specific ratio. This allows the oil to lubricate internal moving parts such as pistons and crankshafts while participating in combustion, preventing wear under high-temperature and high-speed operation, as well as assisting in cooling, sealing, and cleaning the engine interior. However, for four-stroke diesel engines, adding two-stroke engine oil to diesel fuel is not recommended. Since they have an independent circulating lubrication system where the oil does not participate in combustion, adding two-stroke oil can easily cause carbon deposits, clog fuel injectors or high-pressure fuel rails, and affect engine performance. It should be noted that the use of two-stroke engine oil must strictly follow the manufacturer's recommended ratio to ensure the normal operation of the engine and extend its service life.

Fuel Oil No. 2 (locally often referring to diesel for specific purposes) appears red due to the addition of compliant red dye, primarily intended to distinguish its usage and tax attributes. Locally, red diesel generally falls into the category of tax-exempt or subsidized fuel, designated exclusively for agricultural machinery, fishing vessels, industrial generators, off-road engineering vehicles, etc. In contrast, diesel used by ordinary road vehicles is typically light yellow and subject to full taxation. The addition of dye enables law enforcement agencies to easily identify and monitor the fuel, preventing tax-exempt fuel from being illegally used in road vehicles to evade taxes. This dye is compositionally safe and does not negatively impact the fuel's combustion efficiency or equipment performance. Furthermore, color-coded fuel labeling is a common practice in the local fuel management system. In addition to red diesel, other colors are used to distinguish fuels of different grades or purposes, aiding users and regulators in quick identification. This ensures compliance with relevant regulatory requirements, maintains a fair taxation system, and upholds standardized fuel market practices.

Number 2 diesel, which is the standard ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD) available at petrol stations in the country, typically has a light yellow to pale amber color. This shade is a result of advanced refining processes that reduce sulfur content to meet local emission standards (such as Euro 4 or higher, which Malaysia adheres to for diesel fuels) and the inclusion of minimal performance-enhancing additives. Unlike older diesel variants with higher sulfur levels that often appeared darker—ranging from reddish-brown to deep brown—modern number 2 diesel’s lighter color reflects its cleaner composition. While slight variations in hue may exist between different refineries or batches due to minor differences in additive formulations, the overall appearance remains consistent as a pale, transparent yellow-amber liquid. This color not only indicates low sulfur content but also aligns with international clean diesel standards, which help reduce engine wear, lower harmful emissions like particulate matter and nitrogen oxides, and improve fuel efficiency for both passenger cars and commercial vehicles widely used across the country.

Yes, fuel oil #2 usually refers to diesel oil. No. 2 diesel oil is a distillate oil, with a viscosity range of 32.6 to 40.1 SUS at 37.7 degrees Celsius and an interfacial tension of 14.7 dynes/cm. In terms of chemical composition, it contains components such as paraffin (41.3%), monocycloalkanes (22.1%), dicycloalkanes (9.6%), tricycloalkanes (2.3%), and alkylbenzenes (5.9%). The total saturated hydrocarbons account for approximately 75.3%, and the total aromatic hydrocarbons account for about 24.7%. Diesel fuel is generally composed of a mixture of hydrocarbons from C10 to C19, with a composition similar to that of fuel oil #2. The main difference between the two usually stems from the additives used. In addition, No. 2 diesel oil needs to meet specific performance requirements in practical applications to ensure proper atomization and combustion efficiency in engines, adapting to the operational needs of diesel engines, and is one of the commonly used fuel types for diesel engines.

In the Malaysian market, hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) models and small-displacement high-efficiency gasoline models demonstrate the most outstanding fuel efficiency performance. Among them, the Perodua Bezza is recognized as the most fuel-efficient model, with its 1.0L and 1.3L Dual VVT-i engines achieving an official fuel consumption as low as approximately 4.0 liters per 100 kilometers. During actual driving, maintaining a steady throttle and reasonable speed, along with utilizing the ECO driving mode indicator, can further optimize fuel consumption. Additionally, Toyota's hybrid technology delivers exceptional fuel efficiency. Its HEV models integrate a high-efficiency gasoline engine with an electric motor for synergistic operation, resulting in superior fuel efficiency compared to conventional gasoline models (such as the 2.5L gasoline-powered Camry). Furthermore, these models do not require charging infrastructure, offering both convenience and reduced fuel costs. The new engine in the Proton X70 has achieved a 7% reduction in fuel consumption compared to its predecessor through technical upgrades. However, hybrid models and small-displacement economy-focused models like the Perodua Bezza remain more advanced in fuel efficiency, better meeting users' demands for low fuel consumption.

Gasoline is a typical example of fuel. It is a liquid fossil fuel refined and processed from petroleum, with hydrocarbons as its main component. As a common fuel for internal combustion engines, gasoline is widely used in vehicles such as cars, motorcycles, small aircraft, and some mechanical equipment. It releases chemical energy through combustion and converts it into mechanical energy to provide power. Based on octane ratings, gasoline can be classified into different grades to suit engines with varying compression ratios, such as the common 92-octane and 95-octane gasoline. Furthermore, gasoline belongs to the category of fuel oil, which is a subclass of fuel and includes various types such as gasoline, diesel, and kerosene. All of them release energy through combustion to meet diverse power needs.

The fuel types for Class 8 vehicles mainly include diesel, natural gas, and hybrid electric power, among others. Among these, diesel fuel dominates, accounting for over 75% of the market share in this category in 2024. This is because it provides strong power, reliability, and meets the demands of high-intensity industries such as long-haul freight and construction, supported by an extensive refueling infrastructure. Hybrid electric options are also developing gradually; for instance, the hybrid system retrofit design introduced in January 2025 combines batteries with diesel generators to deliver high horsepower, substantial torque output, and extended driving range. Natural gas is another available fuel option for this vehicle category. These fuel types each have distinct features: diesel maintains its mainstream position due to proven maturity and practicality, while cleaner alternatives like hybrid electric power are being progressively adopted to align with the industry's pursuit of more sustainable transportation solutions.